QUESTION: Count Dracula was a “voivode”. What is the origin of this title? Does it still exist?

The word voivode originates from Eastern Europe and dates back to the Middle Ages. The word itself comes from the Old Slavic terms voi, meaning warriors, and vodi, meaning to lead, hence “war leader”.

It was originally a military rank, similar to that of a warlord or military commander, but in the 16th century it evolved to also refer to a high-ranking nobleman or governor of a region.

It primarily referred to the medieval rulers of the Romanian states and the governors and military commanders of the Poles, Hungarians, Balkans, and Russians, as well as other Slavic-speaking populations.

In the specific case of Vlad the Impaler (1431-1476), who inspired Bram Stoker’s Dracula, the title of voivode referred to his position as ruler of Wallachia (a historical region of present-day Romania).

Count Dracula was a “voivode”. The word is Eastern European and dates back to the Middle Ages

Vlad the Impaler (1431-1477) prince of the House of Draculesti, lord of Wallachia (in present-day Romania) associated with the legend of Dracula and the story of Bram Stoker

As voivode, Vlad held both military and administrative powers, making him a combination of prince and military leader.

The voivode is now largely limited to historical or ceremonial use. The only modern state to still use this title is Poland, where a wojewoda is provincial governor.

Paul Nowak, St Albans, Herts

QUESTION: Who introduced Botox to the cosmetic industry?

They were Canadian ophthalmologist Dr. Jean Carruthers and her husband, Dr. Alastair Carruthers, a dermatologist.

In the late 1980s, Dr. Jean Carruthers used botulinum toxin type A (Botox) to treat patients with eye muscle disorders such as strabismus (crossed eyes) and blepharospasm (involuntary closing of the eyelids).

During her work, she noticed that injecting Botox also seemed to reduce frown lines in the treated areas.

Dr. Jean shared her observations with her husband, who began exploring the use of Botox for cosmetic purposes, including to reduce facial wrinkles.

Image of a woman receiving Botox. In the late 1980s, Dr. Jean Carruthers used botulinum toxin type A (Botox) to treat patients with eye muscle disorders such as strabismus (crossed eyes) and blepharospasm (involuntary closing of the eyelids).

They conducted clinical studies to investigate its potential as a treatment for glabellar lines (the vertical lines between the eyebrows), confirming its effectiveness and safety in smoothing wrinkles.

The Carruthers’ findings were presented in 1992, marking the beginning of Botox’s journey toward cosmetic use.

Botulinum toxin type A is highly toxic in its natural form. It is produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum and is one of the most potent neurotoxins known.

This toxin can cause botulism, a rare but serious disease that leads to muscle paralysis, respiratory failure, and even death if not treated promptly.

However, like Botox, the toxin is delivered in a highly purified and diluted form and injected directly into the muscle, making it suitable for medical use.

AE Richards, Oxford

QUESTION: Was London ever considered a Hanseatic city?

The Hanseatic League was a major trading bloc controlled by merchant guilds and market towns.

It began on the German Baltic coast, but spread over the centuries to the Netherlands and east to Estonia.

However, London was never one of them. Unlike the plethora of “city-states” that once made up much of northern Germany, London was the capital of a sovereign nation.

However, London was a vital link in the Hanseatic League’s trade routes and became known as a kontor or trading post.

The London office was based in what was known as the Steelyard, an area of ​​the city near what is now Cannon Street. This area was used for trade with the Hanseatic League from the 13th to the 16th century.

After the discovery of the Americas and the shift of trade westward, the league began to lose influence and decline.

As southern and western countries such as Britain, France and Spain began to establish overseas territories, the League became less relevant in commercial terms as the balance of power has shifted.

London was a vital link in the Hanseatic League trade routes and became known as a kontor or trading post.

Queen Elizabeth I expelled the league from its London office. However, his successor James I authorized its reopening.

A resurgence of power in the Scandinavian countries further weakened the league, and the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) marked its definitive end, although it was never officially dissolved.

Its last formal meeting took place in 1669, at which it discussed a financial contribution to the rebuilding of the Steelyard after its destruction in the Great Fire of London.

No contributions were made and the league never officially met again.

Bob Cubitt, Northampton